Loup-cervier

In eastern Canada, including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, eastern Quebec and southern Ontario, lynx numbers have declined during the last century (Poole 2003). These declines are manifest through northward recession of the southernmost lynx distribution (Koen et al. 2014a, Marrotte and Bowman 2021), although there is evidence of some recent range expansion in New Brunswick, Maine and other northeastern States (NBDNRED 2022, Vashon et al. 2012). However, these increases may be short-lived, owing to expected changes in forest succession and climate conditions, both which will reduce local snowshoe hare populations (USFWS 2017). There is no clear evidence of recent range shifts in the western portion of the Canada Lynx distribution, although substantive range loss was observed through the last century and is expected in the future (McKelvey et al. 2000, Thornton and Murray 2024). Projected losses are likely to be more severe in the southeastern range, although over the longer term some isolated areas in the southwestern mountainous range may remain suitable lynx habitat by providing sufficient forest structure and snow (Thornton and Murray 2024). Despite limited and inconsistent harvest controls during much of the last century, lynx-hare population cycles may be maintained in the northern range, with no discernible changes in distribution and abundance being detected (Mowat et al. 2000, Poole 2003). However, harvest statistics are recognized as weak indices of population abundance (Schmidt et al. 2015, Leclerc et al. 2016) and changes in trapping effort and regulations through time, combined with the prolonged duration of lynx population cycles, make it difficult to infer possible longer-term numerical change or cyclic attenuation. There are no other long-term datasets available for tracking broader population changes in Canada Lynx, but recent work from Alaska (Arnold et al. 2024, see also Ranta et al. 1997a,b) reveals that lynx population cycles travel in demographic waves that may challenge large-scale harvest management goals. Lynx population declines and range recession in the southern range are primarily related to forest loss and declining snow cover, with both changes directly impacting snowshoe hare populations and lynx habitat suitability (USFWS 2017). Interspecific competition from other carnivores including coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Lynx rufus) and fisher (Martes pennanti), whose populations have increased in recent decades, may also affect southern lynx through interference or exploitative competition (Buskirk et al. 2000, Bunnell et al. 2006, Bayne et al. 2008, Peers et al. 2013, but see Kolbe et al. 2007, Murray et al. 2008, King et al. 2021, Morin et al. 2020, Sirén et al. 2021a, Nakamoto et al. 2024). Notably, robust studies of interspecific competition involving Canada Lynx are absent from the literature (Murray et al. 2023) so the importance of interspecific competition in lynx population limitation is unclear. It is alleged that trapping may not be responsible for low lynx numbers at the southern range (USFWS 2000), but lynx harvest in southern Canada remains a concern in terms of incidental captures associated with trapping for other furbearers and limiting dispersalfrom core populations to the contiguous United States (Murray et al. 2008, Thornton et al. 2018). Further, a recent concern for southern lynx populations in British Columbia is related to hound hunting, which is not restricted to a select area (as trapping efforts are) but instead can span large regions (G. Mowat, pers. comm. 2024). This source of mortality may be impactful especially to lynx populations that occur in marginal or fragmented habitat. To date, hunting restrictions have not been enacted in British Columbia, although mandatory reporting is now required. Older multi-storied forests provide winter habitat for lynx and snowshoe hares (Koehler et al. 2008, Squires et al. 2010) and in the western US fire frequency has increased four-fold, with this disturbance expected to increase with warmer climate (Westerling et al. 2006). In the short-term, forest fires have removed substantial suitable habitat for lynx in parts of the western United States (Lyons et al. 2023). However, young dense conifer forest provide habitat for lynx and snowshoe hares, thus natural disturbance and logging practices that foster dense understoreys of conifers can benefit lynx and hares (Burdett 2008, Vashon et al. 2008, and Walpole et al. 2012). Climate change increases insect-related disturbance to boreal forests (Fleming et al. 2002, Logan et al. 2003), though lynx may make use of insect-disturbed forests and cope with insect outbreaks if horizontal cover and hare densities are maintained (Squires et al. 2020, 2022). Maintaining connectivity with the more abundant northern lynx population is considered essential for recovery of southern lynx populations (Ruediger et al. 2000, Nordstrom 2005, Walpole et al. 2012, Squires et al. 2013), especially with warmer climate (Hoving et al. 2005). Since listed as threatened in the contiguous United States, some lynx continue to be trapped incidentally in traps or snares set for other furbearers (DelGiudice et al. 2007, Vashon et al. 2012, NBDNRED 2022). Lynx are occasionally killed in vehicle collisions on roads with high/intermediate traffic speed and volume (Moen et al. 2008, Vashon et al. 2012). Both motorized and non-motorized recreation can result in lower lynx activity, reduced movement, or spatially avoidance of high recreation areas (Olson et al. 2018, Squires et al. 2019, Anderson et al. 2023). Given that recreation is increasing across most public lands in the US and Canada, these impacts may increase in the future. Although, hybridization with bobcats has been detected in Minnesota, Maine, and New Brunswick (Schwartz et al. 2003b, Homyack et al. 2008), hybridization in areas of distributional overlap between lynx and bobcats is surprisingly uncommon at a rangewide scale and does not appear to threaten southern lynx populations (Koen et al. 2014b).

Although Canada lynx are one of five North American furbearers included on CITES Appendix II, in order to monitor the international trade of their fur, there are no quotas or suspensions currently in place. In Canada, the national and provincial governments manage harvests by region (Government of U.S. 2007), using closed seasons, quotas, limited entry and long-term trapping concessions (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the US, trapping takes place only in Alaska, and harvest quotas may be increased during periods of population increase and decreased during periods of cyclic decline (Government of U.S. 2007). However, for best success such dynamic harvest strategies require both numerical synchrony across large geographic regions, and robust understanding of regional population trends and future trajectories, including annual survival, recruitment and harvest rates.

The lynx population in the contiguous US was listed as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 2000, due to inadequate regulatory mechanisms to protect lynx or lynx habitat on Federal lands (USFWS 2000) requiring the US government to develop a recovery plan and identify critical habitat for lynx (Nordstrom 2005). A species status assessment was completed in 2017 (USFWS 2017), and a draft recovery plan was released at the end of 2023 (USFWS 2023). Currently, activities on federal lands are guided by the lynx conservation assessment and strategy (Interagency Lynx Biology Team 2013). In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, where lynx populations are known to be under pressure, recovery planning is initiated (NSLRT 2006, NBDNRED 2022) but currently (2025) without notable field implementation.

Lynx are trapped incidentally in traps set for other furbearers like bobcat or coyote, including in jurisdictions where lynx trapping is closed for conservation purposes. In the contiguous United States, various measures have been recommended to trappers (e.g., avoid the use of hares or rabbits as bait) to reduce accidental taking of lynx in traps set for other furbearers (Golden and Krause 2003). In addition, several States have passed trapping regulations to further reduce accidental capture of lynx in traps set for other furbearers (Del Giudice et al. 2007, Vashon et al. 2012). In New Brunswick, a program is in place for recovery of carcasses of lynx caught incidentally in traps, and these are being used to track population demography (NBDNRED 2022). In some areas lynx may continue to be trapped either incidentally or illegally, but estimates of this harvest are not available. It is likely that not all carcasses from incidentally trapped lynx are surrendered through such programmes, and surrender rates likely represent an underestimate of the impact of trapping on lynx populations in regions where harvest is prohibited.

In the contiguous US. critical habitat designations only apply to federal lands or private lands with federally funded or permitted activities. This designation gives the federal government authority to manage activities that affect the designated habitat. In 2009, the US Fish and Wildlife Service published a revised designation of critical habitat which significantly increased a 2006 designation of 4,768 square miles within the boundaries of Voyagers National Park in Minnesota, Glacier National Park in Montana, and North Cascades National Park in Washington (USFWS 2009). In total, 39,000 square miles of critical lynx habitat was designated in 2009 as follows:

Maine: Approximately 15,284 km² (9,497 square miles) in portions of Aroostook, Franklin, Penobscot, Piscataquis and Somerset Counties.

Minnesota: Approximately 12,979 km2 (8,065 square miles) in portions of Cook, Koochiching, Lake, and St. Louis Counties, and Superior National Forest.

Northern Rocky Mountains: Approximately 16,258 km² (10,102 square miles) in portions of Boundary County in Idaho, and Flathead, Glacier, Granite, Lake, Lewis and Clark, Lincoln, Missoula, Pondera, Powell and Teton Counties in Montana. This area includes the Flathead Indian Reservation, National Forest lands and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands in the Garnet Resource Area. North Cascades: Approximately 1,836 square miles in portions of Chelan and Okanogan Counties which includes BLM lands in the Spokane District. Greater Yellowstone Area: Approximately 9,500 square miles in Gallatin, Park, Sweetgrass, Stillwater, and Carbon Counties in Montana, and Park, Teton, Fremont, Sublette, and Lincoln Counties in Wyoming. The Kettle range of Washington State was not included as critical habitat due to lack of recent evidence of reproduction, and the reintroduced population of Colorado and Utah in the southern Rockies was also not included due to lack of evidence that it is self-sustaining. A recovery outline for lynx in the contiguous US was released in 2005 and designated critical habitat was identified in 2006 and reevaluated 2007. Critical lynx habitat designation was revised in 2009 and 2014, and a complete species status assessment was released in 2017, with an addendum in 2023 (USFWS 2023).